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Lee, K. Bioactive peptides can be formed during protein hydrolysis, either in normal digestive process or in controlled proteolysis in vitro. Currently, very little is known about the quantities, bioavailability, and bioactivity of the peptides that are formed in the digestive process of foods, as components of the human diet.
In order to quantify and measure the impact of the bioactivity of these peptides it is necessary to break the structure of the proteins, either as food component or as isolated, partial or totally purified protein and extract or concentrate the bioactive peptides of interest for health.
Technologies for extraction, hydrolysis, concentration, and purification as well as determination of the amino acid composition and sequence of the peptides are available, but are expensive. The cost-benefit balance will have to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis to justify the investment, considering both economic and human health aspects.
Only the United States of North America, Canada, some European and Eastern countries have developed and used functional products with application of bioactive peptides. Fish protein hydrolysates have potential applications as functional ingredients in different foods because they have numerous and characteristic properties such as: water retention capacity, oil absorption, protein solubility, jellification, ability to foaming and emulsification, in addition to combining numerous bioactivities with benefits for health [,].
This gap as to effective utilization of our sources of bioactive peptides is due to the lack of greater integration between universities and research institutes and the food industry, for the development of integrated multidisciplinary projects, with funding shared between interested sectors: research, industry, and funding agencies for food research and technology.
Although these concepts had their awakening in Japan [1], the original idea is attributed to Hippocrates 5 th century B. In a simplified and concise way, a functional food is one that contains one or more bioactive substances in concentrations suitable for the quantity ingested with the diet to be enough to exercise in the metabolism the functions previously described in 1 and 2.
On the other hand, for a diet to be considered functional e. Therefore, it is concluded that the last century 20 th Century was a time of great achievements in human nutrition and health due to advances in preventive and curative medicine with regard to contagious and communicable diseases, in addition to the major advancement in the science and technology of food and nutrition, providing food with better quality and more available to the population.
The basic nutritional requirements were established and communicated to the population and health authorities. Measures were taken to eliminate, to a significant extent, diseases caused by lack or excess of certain nutrients in the diet. At the same time there was a significant increase in the life expectancy of the Brazilian population, which practically doubled in the course of the century.
These changes occurred due to the improvement in nutrition and in conditions and lifestyle of part of the population. For these diseases, satisfactory solutions are still not provided by medicine and nutrition. By the end of the last century the technologies for fractionation and purification of important food components such as: fractional precipitation, ultracentrifugation, selective extractions, membrane separation processes, different processes of dehydration, separation chromatography affinity, molecular exclusion, ion exchange, and others , in addition to various forms of electrophoresis, were already available to industries in general and to the food industry.
It has been documented throughout the human evolution history that primitive man would have developed their eating habits by a process of trial and error, probably seeking to satisfy their senses, notably the sensory senses involving the perception of color vision , taste sweet, sour, salty , and mouth feel texture, softness, viscosity, chewiness.
Considering the plasticity, flexibility, and adaptability, characteristics of the human metabolism, it is assumed that a set of environmental and metabolic stresses, on the primitive man, must have acted strongly in the fixation of metabolic events and phenotypic characteristics that came to be transmitted from generation to generation until the present times. Foods found in nature, not so abundant in variety and quantity, probably led our ancestors to prefer foods of greater hedonic appeal and high concentration of energy such as fat and protein in animals , starch, soluble sugars, and salts in roots and tubers, fruits and sea products, when available.
Not coincidentally, these are the favorite foods of modern civilization to date, with the difference that they are provided in great quantity and variety, because of the progress in agriculture and food industry, particularly throughout the past century.
Paradoxically, the same foods that served as lifeline for our ancestors, in different parts of the planet, seem to have been and continue to be the villains largely responsible for what is known today as the Metabolic Syndrome, having as component the fat deposition, corpulence and obesity, which progress to diseases such as hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular and neurological diseases, according to some reports in the current literature [].
Considering the magnitude of the challenges that the food production sector had to face in the last years, it is observed that there has been great evolution from simple demand for food for consumption to a complete range of accumulated properties that include complete product safety, sensory quality, nutritional value, and health promotion. However, this set of accomplishments seems to indicate only isolated successes.
It is clear that the present state of the art has added to products currently found on supermarket shelves the result of a complex set of isolated events, rather than the result of a series of preplanned actions.
If we accept the premise that the human species is still evolving, the goal of achieving an ideal diet seems unattainable; we would be trying to reach a frontier that moves by evolutionary pressure. However, with the advances in genetics and human metabolism the concepts of nutrigenomics genomics, proteomics, metabolomics can now be applied, which enables the development of special diets for specific individuals and groups, in order to solve some dietary problems in the short and medium term.
According to Kremer et al. A new definition of health emphasizes the ability of the organism to adapt to the constant challenges of physical, social, and emotional nature [].
Chronic stress can induce adaptation processes that surpass the limits of normal phenotypic flexibility, leading to a progressive inflexibility, which may contribute to the establishment of diseases. Excess or lack of food components in diet induces changes in phenotypic flexibility.
Micronutrients and bioactive compounds have key roles in the maintenance of phenotypic flexibility, while excess energy, high intake of glucose, sucrose and fructose or certain trans-fatty acids cause a decline in phenotypic flexibility. The micronutrients are involved in many metabolic processes with exclusive and interactive functions in the body, and which have been studied mainly in isolation.
Human health is based on a complete network of interactions between metabolic cycles, mechanisms, processes, and organs. Many of these processes have to work in a constantly changing environment diet, infections, stress, temperature, exercise, etc. Also according to Kremer et al.
Moreover, it is clear that physical health is not the only aspect of human health related to nutrition, since mental and social health interact with physical health. The aforementioned authors suggest that, in order to advance the agenda of global nutrition, integrated nutritional research should be employed, using a system of health markers covering relevant aspects of the domains of physical, mental, and social health.
Considering what has been presented here and the extensive literature available on what has been developed in food science and technology and the new concepts concerning nutrition and health, in the course of the last century to the present, it is unexpected the fact that at the level of the general population the knowledge and practice of nutrition still leave much to be desired. The question that has been asked fairly often is: why investments in food science and technology and the knowledge obtained in these areas have not translated into greater benefits for the health of the population?
To better illustrate what would be a desirable effort for integration in food research and development network, we present the simplified scheme in Figure 1. Figure 1: Food research network. Table 4 suggests the main lines of action to improve the availability of functional diets and food for the population.
Table 4: Strategies to improve the availability of functional diets and food for the population. J Food Sci Nut 3: This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
DOI: Abstract This review article is an attempt to update on research and recent published data on food proteins as a source of bioactive peptides contained in their primary structure sequences in inactive forms, which can be released and activated by enzymatic action in vitro or digestive system. Education Introduction of food education at all levels of formal education Informal education by provision of information conducted by professionals from the areas of medicine, food science and technology, and media properly guided 2.
Science and Technology Basic research Applied research Technological research Development of products for specific groups and purposes Table 4: Strategies to improve the availability of functional diets and food for the population.
The knowledge in the area of nutrition has had significant advances because of the related sciences: Genetics, Chemistry, Biochemistry, Physiology, Microanalysis, Computing, and Bioinformatics. Until the beginning of the second half of the last century were established the foundations of traditional nutrition, with respect to the mean needs of nearly all nutrients, with emphasis on those considered indispensable in the diet essential and that enabled the elimination of clinically manifest deficiency diseases, persisting, however, marginal deficiencies of various micronutrients, in various age groups of the population.
The needs and adequacy of caloric intake are still objects of discussion, for different age groups and physiological conditions. Despite the possibility of elimination of deficiency diseases, chronic and degenerative diseases have become more prevalent from the second half of the last century to the present. The concept of functional foods and diets introduced from has opened new frontiers and challenges in deepening the knowledge of the causes and consequences of the so-called non-communicable chronic diseases.
Bioactive compounds present in foods nutrients including bioactive proteins and bioactive peptides, and non-nutrients can have very important roles in reducing the risk and in controlling these diseases. The success achieved in human genomics and in techniques of microanalysis, structures, and statistics has enabled the emergence of the science of bioinformatics.
The main objectives of Nutrigenomics and Epigenetics are the deepening of the knowledge of the causes and of the control of chronic non-communicable diseases and the possibility of development of more appropriate diets, considering individuals and groups with very similar genetic characteristics genotype.
This is the main challenge for nutrition research for the 21st century. Acta Obstet Ginecol Port 3: Am J Hematol Acta Pediatr Port Turk J Pediatr AJP Rep 2: Curr Opin Hematol Kecskes Z Large fetomaternal hemorrhage: clinical presentation and outcome.
J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med Arai S Studies on functional foods in Japan-state of the art. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem Aryoshi Y Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors derived from food proteins. Application of bioprocesses used in isolation and recovery.
Curr Pharm Des 9: Korhonen H, Philantro A Bioactive peptides: production and functionality. Int Dairy J Najafian L, Babji AS A review of fish-derived antioxidant and antimicrobial peptides: their production, assessment, and applications. Peptides Udenigwe CC, Aluko RE Food protein-derived bioactive peptides: production, processing, and potential health benefits.
J Food Sci Food Res Int Cavazos A, Gonzales de Mejia E Identification of bioative peptides from cereal storage proteins and their potential role in prevention of chronic diseases. Fiat AM, Jolles P Caseins of various origins and biologically active casein peptides and oligosaccharides: structural and physiological aspects. Mol Cell Biochem Goulas A, Triplett EL, Taborsky G Oligophosphopeptides of varied structural complexity derived from the egg phosphoprotein, phosvitin.
J Protein Chem Meat Sci Poultry Sci Biosch Biotechnol Biochem J Agric Food Chem Int Dairy J 8: Meisel H Overview on milk protein-derived peptides. Wu J, Ding X Characterization of inhibition and stability of soy-protein-derived angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides. Wu J, Aluko RE, Nakai S Structural requirements of Angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides: quantitative structure-activity relationship study of di- and tripeptides.
Miguel M, Aleixandre A Antihypertensive peptides derived from egg proteins. J Nutr Food Chem In a report in "Science," researchers identified the autoimmune trigger in wheat gluten that induces celiac disease as a peptide. A report in the "International Journal of Biological Sciences" found that an effective "edible vaccine" against Alzheimer's disease may be derived from a peptide contained in rice.
As of , over 80 different peptides known as plant defensins have been identified with antifungal properties, including several in corn and rice. Soybeans and other beans and seeds contain peptides as well.
Numerous recent studies have identified various peptides in soybeans and associated them with specific health benefits, such as a study reported in "Experimental and Molecular Medicine" that confirmed the cancer-preventing and tumor-suppressing effects of the soybean peptide known as isoflavone-deprived soy peptide.
Health Managing Cholesterol Cholesterol in Food. This protein plays multifunctional roles in the translation of intracellular messages Klee and Vanaman, Some of the functions of CaM include calcium-dependent cell division, cell proliferation, and neurotransmission Rasmussen and Means, Excessive levels of CaM can have a detrimental effect on the body and may lead to the development of chronic diseases such as cancer.
Flaxseed proteins have hydrophobic and positively charged amino acids that could enhance the production of CaM-binding peptides through enzymatic hydrolysis. Hydrolysis of flaxseed proteins with alcalase, afforded low-MW peptides Omoni and Aluko, Similarly, hydrolysis of pea proteins with alcalase produced CaM-binding peptides Li and Aluko, MS consists of a deadly quintet of factors, namely diabetes, centripetal obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia elevated triglycerides, dense low-density lipoproteins, and low high-density lipoproteins , and alterations in the thrombotic potential that are related to hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance Hollander and Mechanick, Peptides structurally related to the insulin receptor IR -binding protein mcIRBP have been identified in various plants that have IR kinase-activating abilities similar to mcIRBP that has a proved blood glucose-lowering activity that exhibits IR-binding potentials Lo et al.
Some studies have shown that dietary proteins—especially milk proteins—could be a natural source of these enzymes. The beneficial effects of these inhibitory peptides can be explained through several mechanisms, such as the satiety response, regulation of incretin hormones, insulinemia levels, and reducing the activity of carbohydrate degrading digestive enzymes Patil et al. The extraction of peptides from egg yolk with a non-commercial enzyme obtained from Asian pumpkin has been described.
These peptides remaining after phospholipid removal, and their four synthetic analogs were investigated. This peptide also showed the highest antioxidant activity as a free radical scavenger Zambrowicz et al. Soy protein is of particular interest because can be utilized as an aid to treat MS.
Its relation to several health benefits, including weight loss and prevention of complications related to cardiovascular risk factors, as well as the improvement of lipid profile and glucose and insulin homeostasis has been documented Velasquez and Bhathena, Animal models have demonstrated that soy protein has a positive effect on weight and fat loss that was especially prominent when comparing casein-based diets to soy-based foods.
Nutraceuticals are substances of natural origin that can be extracted from various sources e. In recent years, functional foods and nutraceuticals have attracted much attention, particularly for their impact on human health and prevention of certain diseases Meisel, ; Lee et al.
Considering that most functional peptides are present in complex matrices containing a large number of hydrolyzed protein fractions, their separation and purification are required.
Conventional pressure-driven processes can be used for amino acids and peptides separation but are limited by their fouling problems and their low selectivity when separating similar sized biomolecules Bazinet and Firdaous, Processes combining an electrical field as a driving force and porous membranes have been developed for the separation of biopeptides to obtain better-purified products.
More recently, electrodialysis using ultrafiltration membranes has been developed to fractionate simultaneously acidic and basic peptides using a conventional electrodialysis cell, in which some ion exchange membranes are replaced by ultrafiltration ones Bazinet and Firdaous, After separation and identification of BP in three hypoallergenic infant milk formulas, the identity of 24, 30, and 38 BP was confirmed in each of the three infant milk formulas.
A significant number of these peptides were reported as inhibitors of ACE. However, the presence of sequences with other biological activities such as antihypertensive, anti-thrombotic, hypocholesterolemic, immunomodulation, cytotoxicity, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antigenic, or opioid was also confirmed Catala-Clariana et al. Peptides derived from the milk of cow, goat, sheep, buffalo, and camel exert multifunctional properties on human health.
Additionally, medicinal plants are a rich source of natural antioxidants that are increasingly used in food manufacturing, because they provide valuable nutritional and therapeutic properties and retard oxidative degradation of lipids thus improving, the quality and nutritional values of foods regarded as functional Shori and Baba, The tendency to confer new functional properties to fermented dairy products by supplementation with BP to develop health-promoting foods is steadily increasing Hafeez et al.
One approach exploits the proteolytic system of LAB or food grade enzymes, or the combination of both, to release the functional peptides from the milk proteins directly in the fermented milk products. In another strategy, the BP are obtained outside of the product through the hydrolysis of the purified proteins by the same enzyme sources.
Finally, in the last procedure the BP, initially identified from the milk proteins, are produced by microorganisms using recombinant DNA technology Hafeez et al.
Different strategies that can be employed to enhance the production of BP from milk proteins that will be eventually used to functionalize fermented dairy products. One approach exploits the proteolytic system of LAB or food grade enzymes or the combination of both to release the functional peptides from the milk proteins directly in the fermented milk products.
Several BP, mainly potential antihypertensive peptides from enzyme-modified cheese prepared by commercial and Lactobacillus casei enzymes, were purified and identified. The presence of sites containing potential antihypertensive peptides suggests that the purified peptides may have these properties.
Thus, the enzyme-modified cheese process, mainly designed to produce flavour ingredients, may simultaneously produce BP, which are considered to be of physiological importance Haileselassie et al.
Such BP may find use in the treatment of diarrhoea, hypertension, thrombosis, dental carries, oxidative stress, mineral malabsorption, and immunodeficiency. These BP may be employed in the formulation of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and drugs for health improvement Haque et al. It has been used as an ingredient in infant formulas Ambika, Inflammatory bowel diseases IBD are disorders affecting the GI tract, with prejudicial effects on the quality of life.
These diseases are caused by different factors including dietary habits, and the symptoms include mucosal inflammation increased intestinal permeability and immune system dysfunction. There is an increasing commercial interest in the production of BP from various sources Figure 1.
Industrial-scale production of such peptides is, however, hampered by the lack of suitable technologies which retain or even enhance the activity of BP in food systems Korhonen and Pihlanto, ; Korhonen and Pihlanto, ; Pihlanto, ; Kamau et al.
Schematic representation of the production of bioactive peptides adapted from Danquah and Agyei, BP can be produced from milk proteins through fermentation of milk. In particular, antihypertensive peptides have been identified in fermented milk, whey and ripened cheese.
A few of these peptides have been commercialized in the form of fermented milks Korhonen and Pihlanto, On the other hand, some BP have been identified in fermented dairy products, and there are already a few commercial dairy products enriched with blood pressure-reducing milk protein peptides.
However, there still is a need to develop methods to optimize the activity of BP in food systems and to enable their optimum utilization in the body Korhonen and Pihlanto, The separation and purification of BP involving the development of automated and continuous systems is an important field for food chemists.
Much effort has been devoted to developing selective column chromatography methods that can replace batch methods of salting out or using solvent extraction to isolate and purify BP. These developments will allow the recovery of BP with minimal destruction to guaranty their incorporation into functional foods or for specific nutraceutical applications Kitts and Weiler, Enzymatic digestion is the most efficient and reliable method to produce peptides with target functionalities, including antioxidant activity.
A broad range of antioxidant peptides and peptide mixtures hydrolysates have been produced from soy, corn, potato, peanut, milk, whey, egg, and meat proteins. The antioxidant efficacy of protein hydrolysates and peptides depends on the source of proteins, the protein substrate pretreatment, the type of proteases used, and the hydrolysis conditions applied.
Both pure and crude enzymes can be used to produce antioxidative peptides. However, to reduce the production cost, crude protein mixtures are preferred Zarei et al. BP can be obtained from milk proteins in fermented products by proteases of LAB. Amongst these 15 anionic peptides, 2 hypocholesterolemic, 3 antihypertensive, and 1 antibacterial peptide were recovered Doyen et al. BP with ACE inhibitory and antioxidant activity have been obtained from Thornback ray skin gelatin upon hydrolysis with two different proteases.
Five commercially available food-grade microbial protease preparations were evaluated for their ability to hydrolyse meat myofibrillar and connective tissue protein extracts. Fungal protease or HT proteolytic HT hydrolysed both meat protein extracts, producing peptide hydrolysates with significant in vitro antioxidant and ACE inhibitor activities.
Gel permeation chromatography sub-fractionation of the crude protein hydrolysates showed that the smaller peptide fractions exhibited the highest antioxidant and ACE inhibitor activities.
Cell-based assays indicated that the hydrolysates present no significant cytotoxicity towards Vero cells. The results indicate that HT protease hydrolysis of meat myofibrillar and connective tissue protein extracts produces BP that are non-cytotoxic, should be stable in the GI tract and may contain novel BP sequences and hydrolysates retained bioactivity after simulated GI hydrolysis challenge Ryder, The production of antioxidant peptides by microbial fermentation rather than using purified enzymes is an integral part of healthy food production in many countries.
Natto and tempeh are fermented soybean products that contain antioxidant peptides by the action of fungal proteases Wongputtisin et al. The type, amount, and activity of the peptides produced depend on the particular cultures used. Douchi, also a soybean product fermented by fungal cultures e. Aspergillus spp. Fermentation of milk proteins using the proteolytic systems of LAB is an attractive approach for the generation of functional foods enriched in BP given the low cost and positive nutritional image associated with fermented milk drinks and yogurt Hayes et al.
A novel strategy to enhance ACE inhibitory activities of navy bean consist in the preparation of navy bean milk NBM which was then subjected to fermentation with Lactobacillus bulgaricus , Lactobacillus helveticus MB, Lactobacillus plantarum B, and Lactobacillus plantarum All fermented NBM showed higher ACE inhibitory activity compared to the unfermented ones, for which 2 hours, 3 hours, and 5 hours were found to be the optimum fermentation periods for respectively Lactobacillus plantarum , Lactobacillus plantarum B and L.
The subsequent in vitro GI simulation of all fermented extracts reduced IC50 values and the extracts fermented by Lactobacillus plantarum B exerted the lowest IC50 value. The investigation contributed to gain knowledge to obtain probiotic products with potential to serve as functional ingredients to treat hypertension Rui et al.
Likewise lactotripeptide concentrations and ACE inhibition were higher in L. This may represent a technical advantage for B. During storage, the pH and titratable acidity remained stable in yogurts produced from all milk types and all inoculation concentrations. The ACE-inhibitory tripeptides VPP and IPP as determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry were not produced in yogurt made from soy milk or mare milk.
These evaluations indicate that L. Chemical organic synthesis is an indispensable tool to obtain organic molecules displaying particular physicochemical properties. The use of in silico protocols Kishore, ; Dziuba and Dziuba, ; Udenigwe et al. The therapeutic roles exhibited by many BP have elicited the interest to obtain them by chemical synthesis to treat certain pathological conditions related to oxidation Ialenti et al.
Oral administration of a chemically synthesized peptide Lys-Arg-Glu-Ser lowered LDL peroxidation, alleviated inflammation, and reduced atherosclerosis in apoE-null mice Navab et al. Interestingly, changing the order of the peptide sequence to Lys-Glu-Arg-Ser resulted in the loss of all biological activity, suggesting a particular structure-activity relationship.
Larger peptides that are synthesized to contain amphipathic helixes can also function to suppress LDL peroxidation and reduce inflammation Navab et al. Peptides containing the active Pro-His-His fragment have been synthesized, and all showed remarkable inhibition of lipid peroxidation. A series of synthesized histidine-containing peptides with sequences present in human paraoxonase 1 an enzyme associated with HDL strongly inhibit oxidation of lipoproteins Nguyen et al.
The presence of tyrosine and cysteine residues was essential for the elicitation of the antioxidant activity. Among an antioxidant tripeptide library, the tripeptides, Tyr-His-Tyr and Pro-His-His are especially effective in stabilizing radical and non-radical oxygen species, including peroxynitrite and lipid peroxide Saito et al. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in de novo design and construction of novel synthetic peptides that mimic protein secondary structures to develop potent peptide analogs and peptidomimetics displaying unique pharmaceutical properties Kishore, BP are considered the new generation of biologically active regulators Lemes et al.
Some emerging technologies to recover BP from residual waste Harnedy and Fitzgerald, and to transform them into added-value products, as well as to facilitate large-scale recovery Kitts and Weiler, ; Agyei and Danquah, and purification of peptides aiming at future applications for the pharmaceutical Agyei and Danquah, and food industries Korhonen and Pihlanto, are currently under investigation.
Progress in liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry technologies offers a great opportunity for the identification of BP. However, in many cases the direct application of this technology does not allow the detection of the peptides due to signal suppression. Processes combining an electrical field as the driving force to porous membranes have been developed for the separation of biofactive peptides to obtain better purified products. More recently, electrodialysis with ultrafiltration membranes has been developed to fractionate simultaneously acidic and basic peptides, using a conventional electrodialysis cell, in which some ion exchange membranes are replaced by ultrafiltration ones Bazinet and Firdaous, Nanofiltration NF , pressure-driven process, and electrodialysis with ultrafiltration membranes EDUF electrically-driven process were compared in terms of mass flux and mass balance.
The antioxidant capacity of the fractions was analysed and the more relevant fractions were tested for their potential neurone cells protection against ROS. The peptides isolated by EDUF in the anionic recovery compartments showed an increase of the antioxidant capacities.
These showed that coupling NF and EDUF in a same process line would optimize their own separation performances and allow the production of more specific peptide fractions than alone Langevin et al.
Multifunctional properties of several antimicrobial milk peptides have been exhibit an immune defence against several microbial infections. Escherichia , Helicobacter , Listeria , Salmonella , and Staphylococcus ; yeast, and filamentous fungi Mohanty et al. Ultrasound is a novel, robust, green, and rapid technology suitable for scale up, can enhance the efficiency of protein digestion, extraction, production and drug delivery of BP, this principally acts by generating bubble cavitation in the biological matrix.
It has been extensively reported for extraction of proteins and peptides from natural products facilitating higher yields and rates of extraction. Ultrasound assisted encapsulation of peptide based drugs with biodegradable polymers can improve stability and bioavailability.
Moreover, in sonophoresis applications, low-frequency ultrasound can be used to transport high-MW peptide drugs Kadam et al. Hidden between the chemical structure of proteins present in food matrixes, and other natural sources, lie an immense amount of BP. Enzymatic hydrolysis occurring during digestion or fermentation can liberate an enormous amount of BP whose activities span from antimicrobial, anti-thrombotic, antihypertensive, opioid, immunomodulatory, mineral binding, and antioxidative.
As a result of this broad spectrum of activities, BP have the potential to be used as food additives and ingredients of pharmaceuticals for the treatment or prevention of some medical conditions and life style diseases, such as obesity, diabetes type II and hypertension. Despite the significant progress in the isolation and purification of BP from several natural sources, as well as the assessment of their bioactivities, there still are several obstacles to overcome, particularly from the technological viewpoint to produce them at large scale without losing activity.
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